Teenagers and the Media: The Good, the Bad and the Sexy

With the rise of technology, social media, and media consumption, children and adolescents of the 21st century are exposed to more information and entertainment sources than any previous generation. However, with these advancements, the line between media directed towards adults and media directed towards youth has been blurred. For example, the Netflix television show, Riverdale, is a high-school drama series directed towards adolescents. In response, many parents have criticized the show content's appropriateness, specifically its themes of underage drinking, drug use, gun violence, and sex. The most controversial topic seems to be the show's sympathetic and graphic portrayal of an adult teacher and an underaged student in a sexual relationship (Common Sense Media, n.d.).

It is understandable why so many parents are concerned with how sexual content in popular media may be affecting their children's sexual development and well-being. Although parental restrictions on social media sites like YouTube offer some protection against exposure to sexual content, the vast sources of information in television, movies, and the internet are nearly impossible to filter completely. The public's consensus is that early sexual media exposure negatively influences youth behaviour and attitudes, but it remains unclear to what extent. So far, evidence has shown that unrealistic portrayals of sex in the media might contribute to risky sexual behaviour and expectations. However, sexual media may also offer benefits that are overlooked due to this popular opinion, such as the potential for sexual health education. The pros and cons of sex in the media continue to fuel the heated debate over its impact on youth. As a result, many researchers have raised the following question: is sexual media contributing to long- term sexual health and development in adolescence?

What are the negative impacts?

One of the most popular theories about sexual media is that increased consumption during childhood and adolescence correlates with earlier sexual behaviour and teen pregnancy. As per the social learning theory proposed by Bandura (1971), children learn behaviour by observing and imitating peers and adults. Therefore, watching adults perform sexual acts would consequently influence youth to do the same. Indeed, three longitudinal surveys found that adolescents who consumed more sexual content in media were more likely to initiate sexual intercourse after a 2-year follow-up (Collins et al., 2017). There is also evidence that sexual media also encourages unsafe sexual practices due to their unrealistic depictions of sex. Perry et al. (2019) investigated sexually explicit media as a potential influence on sexual risk behaviour in men who have sex with men. The researchers found that men exposed to sexual media earlier in their lives were more likely to engage in condom-less anal sex. There was a 3% increase in risk probability with every earlier year. With these results in mind, they suggested that exposure to sexual media may be a milestone in sexual development.

However, the theory that exposure to sexual media influences sexual behaviour in adolescents is highly debated. Steinberg and Monahan (2011) argue that sexual behaviour in adolescence is not caused by media exposure; rather, it is the adolescent's propensity to exposing themselves to it that determines their sexual activity. In other words, sexual media exposure does not lead to early sex; it may just be predisposing differences between adolescents. Nevertheless, whether there is causation or not, the correlation observed and replicated multiple times cannot be ignored.

In addition to immediate concerns such as risky sexual behaviour, excessive exposure to sexual media during adolescence may also lead to less satisfying sexual relationships in the future. This may be due to the development of unrealistic expectations about sex which carry over into adulthood. To be specific, a 15-year longitudinal study on adolescents and their viewing of sexual content on television focused on "sexual perfectionism," which is the expectation that sex is uncomplicated, problem-free and always satisfying (Vangeel et al., 2020). By viewing television shows directed to adults during adolescence, individuals were more likely to report lower sexual and relational satisfaction ratings 15 years later. On the other hand, adolescents who viewed shows directed to youth were more likely to report higher ratings. Thus, it can be inferred that viewing mature portrayals of sex during adolescence may lead to developing long-lasting sexual scripts and expectations and feelings of disappointment or shame when faced with real-life sexual experiences that do not meet the ideal.

Are there benefits to sexual media exposure?

The increase of sexual themes in media is not without its benefits. Despite the bountiful evidence that it is an overall negative influence, studies have shown that they are also good learning opportunities for youth. In particular, modern media provides a good medium to communicate information about safe and healthy sex. A meta-analysis studied the effects of new- media interventions on condom-use and sexually transmitted infection testing and found that interactive media interventions were the most successful for women and young people (Swanton, Allom, & Mullan, 2015).

Furthermore, entertainment such as television shows has been found to have positive benefits to sexual attitudes in adolescents. For example, teenagers between the age of 12 and 17 self-reported in a survey that watching the show Friends helped improve their knowledge about condoms and facilitate discussions about condom efficacy with their parents (Collins et al., 2003). Another study found that exposing youth to the negative consequences of sex in media led to more negative moral judgements of unsafe pre-marital sex (Eyal & Kunkel, 2008). This evidence suggests that sexual media can be beneficial to sexual health and development, but only if these depictions are realistic and contain helpful knowledge.

Conclusion

In summary, research has documented many downsides to frequent sexual media exposure in adolescence, including a higher incidence of unsafe sex and lower sexual and relational satisfaction. However, it is essential to note that these issues are most applicable to idealized media portrayals of sex. Realistic sexual depictions have had more positive effects and have demonstrated their potential for healthy sex education.

Despite these research results, movies, music, television, and other media forms continue to depict and encourage unrealistic sex to appeal to audiences. But demanding that the media stop showing sexual content might be counterintuitive, as it does not teach youth about safe sexual decisions and practices any better. Instead, it is in our best interest to encourage sexual discussion and de-stigmatize the uglier aspects of sex, such as STIs. Adolescence is a crucial period for sexual development; it would be impossible to stop teenagers from consuming sexual media. But if the media is going to show them sex, they need to show both the good and the bad.

Tiana Nguyen, 5th Year Life Sciences, Queen’s University

References

Bandura, A. (1971). Social Learning Theory. General Learning Press.

Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Berry, S. H., Kanouse, D. E., & Hunter, S. B. (2003).                       

Entertainment television as a healthy sex educator: the impact of condom-efficacy information in an episode of Friends. Pediatrics, 112(5), 1115-1121. DOI:      10.1542/peds.112.5.1115

Collins, R.L., Strasburger, V.C., Brown, J.D., Donnerstein, E., Lenhart, A., & Ward, L.A. (2017). Sexual media and childhood well-being and health. Pediatrics, 140(2), 162-166. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-1758X

Common Sense Media. (n.d.). Parent Reviews for Riverdale. Common Sense Media. https://www.commonsensemedia.org/tv-reviews/riverdale/user-reviews/adult

Eyal, K., & Kunkel, D. (2008). The effects of sex in television drama shows on emerging adults' sexual attitudes and moral judgments. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 52(2), 161-180. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838150801991757 

Perry, N. S., Nelson, K. M., Carey, M. P., & Simoni, J. M. (2019). Sexually explicit media exposure as a sexual milestone among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men. Health Psychology, 38(1), 29-32. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.queensu.ca/10.1037/hea0000678

Steinberg, L., & Monahan, K. C. (2011). Adolescents' exposure to sexy media does not hasten the initiation of sexual intercourse. Developmental Psychology, 47(2), 562-576. http://dx.doi.org.proxy.queensu.ca/10.1037/a0020613

Self-Sexualization: Sexual Empowerment or Sexual Objectification?

Sexual expression is a fundamental aspect of sexuality that is essential for an individual’s   well-being (Peterson, 2010). After centuries of sexual exploitation, oppression, and violence against women, now more than ever, women are taking control of their sexuality in order to feel sexually empowered. Self-sexualization is one mechanism women use as a form of sexual empowerment, which includes behaviours like dressing or dancing provocatively intended to draw sexualized attention to one’s self (Erchull & Liss, 2014). However, we need to consider the following: is self-sexualization and perceived sexual empowerment associated with positive sexual outcomes or is the perception of sexual empowerment a manifestation of a hyper-sexualized culture that is associated with adverse sexual outcomes? Several studies have indicated that self-sexualization is linked to negative sexual outcomes, arguing against self-sexualization as a form of empowerment. However, empowerment can be interpreted as a subjective experience, and self-sexualization can be seen as a way for women to take control of and express their sexuality on their own terms.

Before we can get into the debate of sexual empowerment versus sexual objectification, another question must be addressed: what is sexual empowerment? Now this question might seem like it should yield a definition instead of a discussion, but feminist and other scholars struggle to define sexual empowerment. Should sexual empowerment be defined as an individual’s subjective feelings of power and agency, or is it something that exists beyond the individual, something that is external and can be seen as an objective measure of power or control (Peterson, 2010). Is feeling empowered the same as being empowered? Some theorists argue that subjective empowerment includes feelings of power, control, and satisfaction, thus creating a sexually empowered woman. However, others contest this definition of empowerment, pointing out that this kind of behaviour might be a manifestation of exposure to a “pornified version of sexual empowerment” that is actually representative of a history of sexual exploitation and oppression (Peterson, 2010). One study by Erchull and Liss (2014) defined sexual empowerment as consisting of positive sexual outcomes, feeling secure and good about one’s sexuality, having the ability to communicate desires and boundaries, and enjoying one’s sexual encounters. In other words, sexual empowerment can be loosely defined as being comfortable, confident, and satisfied with one’s sexuality.

Objectification theory states that women are often sexually objectified and treated as objects for others to admire and use. Sexual objectification happens when a woman’s value is stripped down to body parts and physical appearance and viewed as a physical object separate from her as a person (Symanski et al., 2011). Self-objectification occurs when a woman emphasizes her physical appearance rather than her competence-based characteristics, which can have negative implications. Similar to self-objectification, self-sexualization involves actions taken by an individual who purposefully highlights their sexualized attributes (Peterson, 2010). A study by De Wilde et al. (2020) examined the effects of self-sexualization through looking at the relationship between holding a “sex-is-power belief” and outcomes like sexual satisfaction, sexual body esteem, negative eating attitudes, and more. In their study, self-sexualization was a behavioural manifestation of the sex-is-power belief. A study by Erchull and Liss (2014) measured three indices of perceived sexual empowerment (engaging in sexual behaviour, enjoying sexualization, and believing that sex is a source of personal power) against several variables to test if perceived sexual empowerment could be related to external measures of empowerment like sexual esteem, sexual assertiveness, and sexual satisfaction. They found that women who supported the three constructs of perceived sexual empowerment were more likely to fake an orgasm (Erchull & Liss, 2014). This is an interesting finding because faking orgasm shifts the focus from one’s own pleasure to the pleasure of one’s partner and indicates that sex is engaged in as a performance instead of for pleasure. The study also found that women who supported the three constructs had more sexual encounters, but no greater satisfaction in those encounters. These findings show that while self-sexualization can be a source of perceived empowerment, measures of self-sexualization were not associated with external measures of sexual empowerment. So, perhaps self-sexualization is not the best form of sexual empowerment?

Everyone, women included, has the right to feel confident and comfortable in their sexuality; for example, if that means some women self-sexualize and dress in a “provocative” way,   who are we to say that this is a wrong form of empowerment? Many self-identified heterosexual women report enjoying being admired by men in a sexual manner, feeling empowered through this sexual admiration, and appreciating the sense of control it gives them over their sexuality (Liss et al., 2011). One article examined the difference between sexual empowerment and sexual objectification by comparing two popular and controversial music videos, “Wrecking ball” by Miley Cyrus and “Blurred Lines” by Robin Thicke (Beau, 2019). Both music videos feature nude women, but they have very different intentions. In the “Wrecking ball” music video, Miley Cyrus has been interpreted as a symbol of sexual liberation and as owning her sexuality on her terms, whereas the “Blurred Lines” music video features naked women used as props dancing on fully dressed men (Beau, 2019). Beau explains that the difference between objectification and empowerment is decided by who has the agency in the situation (2019). Are you sexualizing yourself on your own terms for yourself or for someone else’s pleasure? Miley Cyrus is an excellent example of how self-sexualization can be a form of sexual empowerment because she is taking control of her sexuality (Beau, 2019).

Pulling together the wide variety of definitions of sexual empowerment described above, we can surmise that sexual empowerment includes positive sexuality outcomes resulting in comfort, confidence, and satisfaction. Sexual empowerment comes from having full agency over one’s sexuality and is individually focused, prioritizing one’s own desires, pleasure, and preferences instead of focusing on what others think. Scholars have studied self-sexualization as a form of empowerment with mixed results, suggesting that there may be more negative than positive outcomes associated with this form of sexual empowerment. Every person deserves  to be sexually empowered in the most positive way possible. It is important to be aware of the potential negative outcomes related to self-sexualization in order to ensure one is achieving the positive sexual outcomes that should be associated with sexual empowerment like confidence, satisfaction, and comfort. Based on both sides of the argument, being sexually empowered involves a significant degree of self-awareness and introspection. If you feel empowered by self- sexualization behaviours, ask yourself, who am I doing this for? If the answer is for yourself, then continue to explore and express your sexuality in those ways! If the answer is for someone else, you might want to take a step back and find the ways you like to express your sexuality for YOU and nobody else in order to avoid potentially negative outcomes associated with self-sexualization.

Adrianna Schmeichel, BAH Psychology 2022, Queen’s University

References

Beau, E. (2019, November 02). Sexy: Objectifying or Empowering? Retrieved 2020, from https://medium.com/sensual-enchantment/sexy-objectifying-or-empowering-%09a038c45aaa00

De Wilde, M., Casini, A., Wollast, R., & Demoulin, S. (2020). Sex is power belief and women’s mental health: The mediating roles of self‐objectification and sexual subjectivity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 50(5), 1017-1031.

Erchull, M. J., & Liss, M. (2014). The object of one’s desire: How perceived sexual empowerment through objectification is related to sexual outcomes. Sexuality & Culture, 18(4), 773-788.

Liss, M., Erchull, M. J., & Ramsey, L. R. (2011). Empowering or oppressing? Development and exploration of the Enjoyment of Sexualization Scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(1), 55-68.

Peterson, Z. D. (2010). What is sexual empowerment? A multidimensional and process-oriented approach to adolescent girls’ sexual empowerment. Sex Roles, 62(5-6), 307-313. 

Szymanski, D. M., Moffitt, L. B., & Carr, E. R. (2011). Sexual objectification of women: advances to theory and research. The Counseling Psychologist, 39(1), 6-38.